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Thank you for being here. I have no time to waste, so let's go ahead and get started. First off, a disclaimer: this talk is not about skyscrapers. I know you're probably thinking, 'But the very first slide said how to build a skyscraper.' I promise you, this talk is not about skyscrapers, and it's really important that we remember this as we go through the presentation. For those of you who are on time, you're going to create some confusion for those who come in late, because we have an exercise to do. Anytime you see this slide, I'd like you to read it out loud. Let's try that right now: this talk is not about skyscrapers.
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Alright! When I first started researching for this talk, I found it fascinating to read about the considerations in skyscraper design and construction. So, let's start with the first skyscraper to discuss. The first we're going to talk about doesn't technically qualify as a skyscraper—it is the Equitable Life Building, built in 1870. To be fair, "skyscraper" is a term we've also used to describe very tall horses, very tall men, and even very tall hats. So I think we can give a seven-story, 130-foot tall building a pass.
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The Equitable Life Building was the tallest in the world from 1872 to 1884 and served as the headquarters of the Equitable Life Assurance Society of the United States. However, that's a mouthful, so I'll just call them Equitable. They were a life assurance society, meaning they were essentially a life insurance company. Being in this business, they were experts at assessing risk. They determined that their building was fireproof, and we'll come back to that a little later.
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The basement housed safes and vaults filled with billions—yes, billions—in 1870s era money of securities, stocks, and bonds. Simply put, the Equitable Building was at the center of most of New York's wealth, specifically in the financial district, and it showed. This building was gorgeous, and the tenants included bankers, lawyers, and even had an exclusive lawyers' club, which you can see here. But there was one problem. Can you spot it? A lawyer on the seventh floor wasn't going to have very many clients if they had to climb six flights to reach him.
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Thankfully, a solution to this problem existed. A man named Elisha Otis was a tinkerer—he and his sons were inventors. At age 40, in 1851, he was managing the conversion of an abandoned sawmill into a bed frame factory. While cleaning up, he realized he needed to lift debris to the upper floors. Hoists and elevators existed, but they had a critical flaw: if the rope broke, anything on the hoist would likely break or fall. That was quite an issue.
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Elisha and his sons designed what they called a safety hoist, which wouldn't fall to the ground if the rope broke. Interestingly, he didn't think much of this invention; he didn't patent it, sell it, or ask for a bonus for designing it. However, three years later, when the bed frame business declined, he decided to start a company to sell these elevators. They had no business for several months.
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The unique aspect of these elevators was the teeth on the side that would spring out into place if the rope snapped, stopping the elevator from falling. After several months without business, Elisha Otis got a chance to demonstrate the elevator in a dramatic way at the 1854 New York World's Fair. He climbed onto one of the hoists and had an assistant cut the rope. Everyone was waiting for disaster, but everything was fine. I would like to point out that this is a charcoal drawing, but there is a photo bomb in it—I'm not quite sure what that's all about!
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These elevators weren't perfect; they ran on steam engines at the time. This meant that someone had to keep them constantly fueled. It would be quite awhile before they were updated to run on electricity, but it was a big deal for the Equitable Building. Before, if you owned an office building, people didn’t want to climb stairs. The most money you made on that investment was by renting out the lower floors, while a company would lease the space on those floors and make all of its employees climb it, ending up sweaty and a mess upon arrival, speaking of which... How were those showers this morning?
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Now, there's a safe way to travel easily to and from these higher floors. Also, the highest floors happen to be the most well-lit, ventilated, and farthest away from road noise. This literally turned the value proposition for buildings upside down, and all of this was the result of something that Elisha Otis didn’t even think was that big of a deal. I’m just glad he shared it! Anyway, let's return to the Equitable Building—the one that was supposedly fireproof.
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This is the Café Sovereign, a very fancy café in the Equitable Building. Now, picture this: it's January 9, 1912, just after 5 a.m. The wind is howling with gusts over 40 to 68 miles per hour, making the already freezing temperatures even colder. Phillip O'Brien, the timekeeper at the Café Sovereign, started his day by lighting the gas in his small office. Distractedly, he threw the still-lit match into the garbage can. By 5:18 a.m., the office was engulfed in flames, spreading quickly to the elevators and dumbwaiter system, and soon entire building was on fire! The fire department arrived, but as you can see here, it was so cold that the water they sprayed froze on the building.
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They literally couldn't put the fire out because the water was turning to ice before reaching the flames. The building was completely ruined. So much for the building builders' claims of fireproof construction being lost in a fire! History buffs might also remember that 1912 was the year that an 'unsinkable' ship struck an iceberg and sank as well. You'd think two disasters in one year would make us reconsider making such grandiose claims.
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Next, let's talk about the Home Insurance Building. It was built in 1885, and the architect was William LeBaron Jenny. The story goes that Jenny left work unusually early one day, and his wife thought perhaps he was ill, so she rushed to meet him at the door. She placed a heavy book on a birdcage, and inspiration struck Jenny when he saw it. He mused that if such a frail frame could support such weight, would not a cage of iron or steel serve as a frame for a building? That sounds very poetic, and we’re going to go with it.
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The Home Insurance Building is considered the father of the skyscraper by many. The tallest in the world until 1889, it was built with cast-iron columns and rolled iron beams for the framework up to the sixth floor, and from that floor up, it was steel beams. Most of the masonry used was hung from the framework like a curtain. In this construction, the masonry served to look pretty and keep the weather out, while the heavy lifting was done by the framework. This construction method made the building drastically lighter, to about one-third the weight of a typical load-bearing masonry building.
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Something as simple as a birdcage led to an idea that revolutionized tall building construction. However, you may have noticed that I stated some of the masonry was still load-bearing, which left things open to debate about what qualifies a skyscraper. As a result, if you were from New York, you might argue that the Home Insurance Building really isn't the first skyscraper, but if you were from Chicago, you'd likely think it was.
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Yet, the interesting thing is that despite being a technical accomplishment that served the needs of occupants, it was so easy for people to come along afterwards and say it wasn't that impressive. This is Leroy Buffington; he doesn’t look very happy, does he? Maybe that's because he claimed to have had the same idea for this framework design in 1881, though he didn’t build it. He did, however, apply for a patent in November of 1887, which was granted in May of 1888. By that time, the technique was already in wide use.
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Buffington started a company called the Iron Building Company specifically to pursue lawsuits for his innovations. This is a flax mill built in 1797 that used iron framing. Sounds like prior art to me, but that didn't stop Buffington from trying to extract money from anyone willing to pay. So, let’s move on to the next building: the Monadnock Building, built in 1891 in Chicago, Illinois. Two wealthy brothers, Peter and Shepherd Brooks, believed Chicago was going to be America’s largest city.
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You'll notice Peter was rich because there are no oil paintings made of people who aren't wealthy! They hired a guy named O&M Aldus as their property manager; Peter Brooks only ever visited Chicago once. The brothers relied on Aldus to handle all the details. Aldus recommended they hire Daniel Burnham and John Root from the imaginatively named firm of Burnham & Root to design the building. Burnham was a pragmatic businessman while Root was an artist with flair.
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This is a sketch from 1885 by Root, at which time the building was planned to be thirteen stories high with Egyptian-inspired ornamentation. Peter Brooks was known for being very wealthy and very stingy; he preferred simplicity and insisted that the architects refrain from any elaborate ornamentation. He didn't want anything to protrude at all because it would create a place for pigeons to nest. Apparently, he had a significant problem with pigeons.
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When Root went on vacation, Burnham had a draftsman create a simpler drawing, and you can imagine when Root returned, he wasn't pleased: his artistic work was gutted. However, he eventually decided to immerse himself in the design process, claiming that the heavy lines of the Egyptian pyramids captured his imagination and he would throw the design up without a single ornament. By embracing the constraints Brooks imposed instead of fighting them, he found a way to remain invested and passionate about his work.
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This is the redesign from 1889, and you can see he couldn’t entirely give up on ornamentation, using small protrusions that you can see here. This helped sell Brooks on the idea because these protruding windows could increase their rentable square footage. Consequently, the height of the building was calculated based on how high they could build while still allowing enough room to rent. The walls were load-bearing masonry, quite thick at six feet.
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Given Chicago’s soft soil, they devised a special raft system to float the building. The finished product was 215 feet tall with 17 stories and was the tallest commercial structure in the world at the time. They anticipated some settling and designed it to settle eight inches, but by 1905 it had settled significantly more. By 1948, it settled 20 inches, necessitating a step down to enter the building.
00:14:19.240
Profitability is a vital factor to consider, but it can't be the only thing when building a skyscraper. Now let's discuss the Fuller Flatiron Building, built in 1902. During the construction of the Monadnock, John Root passed away, leaving Daniel Burnham still in business. He partnered with Frederick Dinkleberg to design the Fuller Flatiron Building. Initially, it would have been just the Fuller Building after George A. Fuller, a notable figure in the architecture community, but locals began calling it the Flatiron.
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I assumed this name was because it was made from iron, but the actual reason was simpler: the building looked like a flat iron used for pressing clothes. The plot of land was triangular, necessitating an unusual shape for the building. While the Monadnock required six-foot-wide walls, the Flatiron was only 6.5 feet at its tip and a total of 16 stories tall, but Burnham and Dinkleberg adapted their approach to the peculiar space, choosing all-steel construction.
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As you'd expect, locals initially called the building Burnham's Folly. They were betting on how far the building's debris would blow if it toppled in windstorms. However, an engineer named Cornelius Purdy was involved in the project and had designed bracing that had been tested to withstand winds four times what the building would encounter. The first windstorm hit shortly thereafter, with 60 mph winds, and tenants claimed they couldn't feel the slightest vibration.
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One tenant even remarked that the filament in his light bulb did not quiver despite the storm. This didn’t surprise engineers—they had tested their designs and knew what to expect, but it astonished everyone else. Now, we’ll talk about two skyscrapers at once, both built in New York: 40 Wall Street and the Chrysler Building. Craig Severance and William Van Allen used to be partners, yet they had distinctly different personalities.
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Van Allen was an artist who loved discussing design with fellow architects, while Severance associated much more with business people and was all about driving sales. He didn't have the passion for architecture as art that Van Allen had. Whenever architecture magazines referred to Van Allen as a great designer without mentioning Severance, it weighed heavily on his temper. Their partnership ended poorly, and they ended up in competition when Severance was commissioned to design 40 Wall Street while Van Allen was assigned to design the Chrysler Building.
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You probably know about the Chrysler Building, but let me help identify 40 Wall Street, which is also referred to as the Trump Building today. I'm mentioning that it was known as the Bank of Manhattan Trust Building back then. Severance assembled a dream team of his associate Yasuo Matsui and consulting architects to design 40 Wall Street. Conversely, Walter Chrysler had Van Allen design the Chrysler Building, fully funded by himself because he wanted the building to be a monument for his children.
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Since Chrysler was obsessed with every detail, he announced the Chrysler Building would be the tallest one built. However, he was in a race against 40 Wall Street's construction progress. Severance was feeling good about things because the Chrysler Building slowed down while the team was putting up the signature domes everyone recognizes. Severance was looking towards a great moment as he got as far as he could.
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Their announcement sparked excitement in October 1929 when Severance visited the construction site of 40 Wall Street. Severance was proud as he saw his building nearing completion, even with Chrysler announcing that the steel work was complete at that very moment; this would have made Chrysler's building the tallest structure in the world at 850 feet. Severance wasn't worried as he had plans to build higher than Chrysler's announcement.
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In October 1929, a flood of announcements from other builders claimed taller buildings were forthcoming, with people suggesting there was nothing to deter them from building two-mile-tall skyscrapers. Van Allen and a few others who were in the loop knew their buildings were going higher than anyone expected. So, in the third week of October, Severance learned about a 60-foot flagpole to be added to the Chrysler Building and, planning ahead, raised his plans.
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When this information leaked, the press declared that the Bank of Manhattan Trust Building was going to be the tallest. It made sense, given that the Chrysler Building couldn't go much higher after all, but nobody really paid attention when the Chrysler Building suddenly topped out to an unforgettable height. 40 Wall Street eventually topped out in November, and the New York World ran a headline discussing Severance's building.
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Four days later, an unassuming trade publication called the Daily Building Report shockingly revealed that Chrysler's building was over 238 feet taller than what anyone realized was being built. After everything had settled, the Chrysler Building towered over 40 Wall Street by more than 100 feet, becoming the tallest man-made structure ever built—surpassing even the Eiffel Tower.
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Both buildings cost a fortune to build—$13 million for the Chrysler and $14 million for the 40 Wall. Just think about how much extra expense was incurred because each was trying to outdo the other. However, Chrysler, after everything went also refused to pay Van Allen his six percent design fee, which amounted to a whopping $840,000! Since Van Allen didn’t establish a binding contract for Chrysler’s commissioning, he found himself stiffed, and Chrysler’s actions became a cautionary tale for other architects.
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In fact, there have been no major studies devoted to Van Allen’s work, and he remains little known in architecture history. The New York Times didn’t even publish his obituary upon his passing. The next magnificent skyscraper we're looking into is the Empire State Building, still in New York. Back in August of 1929, when the construction of both previous buildings was happening, rumors circulated that a new developer was about to take ownership of the site at the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel.
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Al Smith, a former New York Governor running for President against Herbert Hoover, had invited John Raskob to chair the Democratic National Convention. Raskob had been VP of Finance at GM until ousted by Al Sloan, a supporter of Hoover, due to a conflict of interest. When he left GM, he sold his stock to fund the construction of a building. Raskob created the Empire State Company and hired Al Smith to be president.
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Smith was flamboyant. This included a grand announcement for the company and an 80-story skyscraper, claiming it would be the tallest in the world, despite the commotion from other builders claiming to erect even taller structures. Smith made his announcement alongside the consulting architects who, at the time, were working on 40 Wall Street. They quickly teamed up with Arthur Loomis Harmon to display scale models of the Empire State Building.
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Interestingly, Smith and the team promised to do sound development of usable space without sacrificing any design quality. The original project had a very tight deadline, so initial designs were completed in a mere two weeks. They created the final layout at breakneck speed, and final design work aimed for ensuring pleasant interiors for the occupants. Smith understood what mattered—certain things had to be prioritized, especially lighting and ventilation, which were vital to make the structure comfortable.
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As construction commenced, the forecast for the Empire State Building’s height continued to grow. The architects aimed for a balance between accessibility and height because the higher they went, the more elevators their building would require. This played into building design concepts, height adjustments, and usable spaces. On November 1929, which was just after the Waldo- Astoria purchase announcement, new levels were approved, and five more floors were planned.
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Despite potential height overestimations by about 50 feet, Smith was the decision-maker. When Smith viewed the scale model presented to him, he stated, "This building needs a hat!" He didn’t mean a literal hat, but a docking area for zeppelins at the top of the Empire State Building to allow passengers to disembark. This idea complicated construction plans, increasing the building’s height and their costs by a staggering $750,000. Smith resisted architects’ concerns; he cared more about the marketing appeal of zeppelins floating over New York City.
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Ultimately, despite some pushback, plans were revised. This deviation bolstered frustration among the architects trying to keep things practical. When the design was finalized, the construction began. The construction of the Empire State Building began on March 17, 1930, and took only 14 months to complete at an astonishing pace of four and a half stories per week, setting a record.
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It opened with the record for being the tallest skyscraper for the next 40 years, demonstrating just how short-lived Van Allen's record was. They completed this monumental structure with only five recorded deaths during construction, which, considering the conditions, seems very low. However, as any loss of life is too many, safety is key during construction.
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Next, we move to the United Nations headquarters in New York. It’s interesting to note that compared to the Empire State Building, this structure stands significantly lower yet took a much longer timeframe for construction from 1948 to 1952, during which methods and technologies had evolved, as seen with the speedy execution of the Empire State.
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The building utilizes a vast expanse of windows for natural light, but with the light comes heat. If there are many sealed windows, humidity can become an issue. This led to the development of air conditioning systems pioneered by Willis Carrier. Carrier adapted cooling techniques that adjusted air humidity, eventually enabling systems for human comfort.
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Before long, the U.N. HQ would not be possible without the major innovations made in air conditioning technology used to maintain stable climates indoors. In fact, a similar approach for humidity concerns led to additional advancement frameworks. The development of advanced controls allowed air conditioning systems to run effectively without complications.
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Our next building is the Willis Tower, previously known as the Sears Tower, designed by Fazlur Rahman Khan. Khan was both an architect and a structural engineer tasked with an office complex for Sears Roebuck and Company, wanting to house all Chicago employees under one roof in a towering structure.
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Given that Chicago is famously known as the Windy City, it became critical to counteract severe forceful winds encountered regularly. The swaying motion could even trigger seasickness on the upper levels for occupants. Therefore, Khan designed a structural improvement called a tube system, which changed the internal support mechanism—pushing the framework outward, enhancing resistance against bending and swaying forces.
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This tubular design reduced the overall weight while maximizing floor usage for larger, open layouts. Over time, design innovations turned these buildings into art forms capable of becoming even more effective and stunning structures, enhancing architectural legacies.
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Ultimately, the final two structures we’ll discuss are the Taipei 101, completed in 2004, and the Burj Khalifa built in 2010. Taipei is located in Taiwan near the Pacific Ring of Fire, facing seismic activities regularly. This means earthquakes pose a significant threat to any building due to their potential for foundation disruption. Engineers developed stress models to help test buildings for resilience.
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These models are practical, providing insights to remain improvements for buildings under stress from nature’s elements; they analyze steel’s capacity to bend and flex without breaking. While this continues to be a venture, testing these models has allowed for updates to architectural plans. Most interesting was the engineers’ realization of finding a balance between flexibility and rigidity to address wind force versus earthquake impact.
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When we consider the Burj Khalifa, it became critical after the attacks of September 11, where evacuation safety became paramount when constructing super-tall structures. Emergency exits remained pivotal, and the Burj Khalifa uses refuge rooms designed from reinforced concrete, nutritionally secured spaces that withstand extreme heat for up to two hours. Each room has specialized air provisions for maintaining optimal temperature without succumbing to smoke inhalation.
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The take-home message from this talk is that while these buildings may be incredible feats of engineering, they must also focus on the safety and well-being of those who occupy them.
